The following bibliography is for anyone interested in the goals and aims of the English Profile programme. It is a work in progress, so please consult it regularly for updates. If you have any comments on the bibliography, please feel free to contact us.
English Profile Research Publications
This section includes publications relating to the English Profile Programme, produced by English Profile researchers.
Alexopoulou, T. (2008). Building new corpora for English Profile, Research Notes, 33: 15–19,
Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Capel, A. (2010). Insights and issues arising from the English Profile Wordlists project, Research
Notes, 41: 2-7. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Capel, A. (2009). A1–B2 vocabulary: Insights and issues arising from the English Profile Wordlists
projects. Paper presented at the English Profile Seminar, Cambridge, 5–6 February 2009.
Green, A. (forthcoming 2012). Language Functions Revisited: Theoretical and Empirical Bases For
Language Construct Definition Across the Ability Range. Cambridge:
UCLES/Cambridge University Press.
Green, A. (2008). English profile: Functional progression in materials for ELT. Research Notes,
33: 19–25. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Hawkins, J. A. & Buttery, P. (2010). Criterial features in learner corpora: Theory and illustrations,
English Profile Journal 1 (1). Available online
Hawkins, J. A. & Buttery, P. (2009). Using learner language from corpora to profile levels of
proficiency: Insights from the English Profile Programme. In Taylor, L. & Weir, C. J. (Eds).
Language Testing Matters: Investigating the Wider Social and Educational Impact of
Assessment, 158-175. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hawkins, J. A. & Filipovic, L. (forthcoming 2012). Criterial Features in L2 English. Cambridge:
UCLES/Cambridge University Press.
Hendriks, H. (2008). Presenting the English Profile Programme: In search of criterial features.
Research Notes, 33: 7–10. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Kurtes, S. and Saville, N. (2008). The English Profile Programme – An overview. Research Notes,
33: 2–4. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
McCarthy, M. (2010). Spoken fluency revistited, English Profile Journal 1 (1). Available online
Salamoura, A. (2008). Aligning English Profile research data to the CEFR. Research Notes,
33: 5–7. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Salamoura, A. & Saville, N. (2010). Exemplifying the CEFR: Criterial features of written learner
English from the English Profile Programme. In Bartning, I., Maisa, M. & Vedder, I. (Eds).
Communicative proficiency and linguistic development: Intersections between SLA and language
testing research, Eurosla Monographs Series (1), 101-132. Available online
Salamoura, A. and Saville, N. (2009). Criterial features across the CEFR levels: Evidence from
the English Profile Programme. Research Notes, 37: 34–40. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Saville, N. & Hawkey, R. (2010). The English Profile Programme - the first three years, English
Profile Journal 1 (1). Available online
General materials
This section includes materials published by English Profile researchers, as well as seminal works that relate to the English Profile research aims and objectives.
Alderson, J. C. (Ed.) (2002). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment – Case studies. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Available online
Alderson, J. C. (2007). The CEFR and the need for more research. Modern Language Journal, 91 (4),
659–63.
ALTE (2002). The ALTE Can Do Project (English version). Available online
ALTE (2005). CEFR Grid for the Analysis of Speaking Tasks (Version 2.0). Available online
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Bachman, L. F. & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bateman, H. (2009). Some evidence supporting the alignment of an LSP writing test to the CEFR,
Research Notes, 37: 29–34, Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Briscoe, E., Carroll J. & Watson R. (2006). The second release of the RASP system. In Proceedings of
the COLING/ACL 2006 Interactive Presentation Sessions. Sydney, Australia. Available online
Bygate, M. (1988). Speaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Canale, M. (1983). On some dimensions of language proficiency. In J. W. Oller, (Ed.), Issues in
Language Testing Research (pp. 333–42). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language
teaching and testing, Applied Linguistics, 1: 1–47.
Coste, D. (2007). Contextualising uses of the common European framework of reference for
languages. Paper presented at Council of Europe Policy Forum on use of the CEFR, Strasbourg
2007. Available online
Council of Europe (1998). Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common
European Framework of Reference. Strasbourg: Language Policy Division.
Council of Europe (2001a). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Council of Europe (2001b). European Language Portfolio (ELP). Strasbourg: Language Policy Division.
Council of Europe (2001c). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching and Assessment – Guide for Users. J. Trim (Ed.). Strasbourg: Language Policy Division.
Available online
Council of Europe (2002). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment. Language Examining and Test Development. M. Milanovic (Dir.).
Strasbourg: Language Policy Division. Available online
Council of Europe (2003a). Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework
of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment: Manual, Preliminary Pilot Version.
Strasbourg: Language Policy Division.
Council of Europe (2003b). Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework
of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment: Manual, Overview of Preliminary
Pilot Version. Strasbourg: Language Policy Division. Available online
Council of Europe (2003c). Samples of Oral Production Illustrating, for English, the Levels of the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Strasbourg: Language Policy Division.
Council of Europe (2004). Reference Supplement to the Preliminary Pilot Version of the Manual
for Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference.
Strasbourg: Language Policy Division. Available online
Council of Europe (2008). Explanatory Notes to Recommendation CM/Rec (2008)7 of the Committee of
Ministers to Member States Concerning the Use of the Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages (CEFR) and the Promotion of Plurilingualism. Available online
Council of Europe (2009). Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR). A Manual. Strasbourg:
Language Policy Division. Available online
Crossthwaite, P. (2012). Learner Corpus Linguistics in the EFL Classroom. PASAA - A Journal of LanguageTeaching and Learning in Thailand (44). Available online
Douglas, D. (2000). Assessing Languages for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Figueras, N. & Noijons, J. (Eds.) (2009). Linking to the CEFR levels: Research Perspectives. Arnhem:
Cito/EALTA.
Figueras, N., North, B., Takala, S., Verhelst, N. & Van Avermaet, P. (2005). Relating examinations
to the Common European Framework: a manual. Language Testing, 22 (3): 261–79.
Fulcher, G. (2004). Deluded by artifices? The Common European Framework and Harmonization.
Language Assessment Quarterly, 1 (4): 253–66.
Galaczi, E. & ffrench, A. (2007). Developing revised assessment scales for Main Suite and BEC
speaking tests. Research Notes, 30: 28–31. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Galaczi, E. & Khalifa, H. (2009). Cambridge ESOL’s CEFR DVD of speaking performances: What’s the
story? Research Notes, 37: 23–9. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Grabe, W. & Kaplan, R. B. (1996). Theory and Practice of Writing: An Applied Linguistic Perspective.
Longman: London.
Jones, N. (2000). Background to the validation of the ALTE Can Do project and the revised
Common European Framework. Research Notes, 2: 11–13. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Jones, N. (2001). The ALTE Can Do Project and the role of measurement in constructing a
proficiency framework. Research Notes, 5: 5–8. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Jones, N. (2002). Relating the ALTE framework to the Common European Framework of
Reference. In J. C. Alderson (Ed.), pp. 167–83.
Jones, N. (2005). Raising the languages ladder: Constructing a new framework for accrediting
foreign language skills. Research Notes, 19: 15–19. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Jones, N. (2009a). A comparative approach to constructing a multilingual proficiency framework:
Constraining the role of standard setting. In N. Figueras & J. Noijons (Eds.), pp. 35–43.
Jones, N. (2009b). A comparative approach to constructing a multilingual proficiency framework:
Constraining the role of standard setting. Research Notes, 37: 6–9. Cambridge: Cambridge
ESOL.
Jones, N. & Saville, N. (2009). European language policy: Assessment, learning and the CEFR.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 29, pp. 51–63.
Kaftandjieva, F. (2004). Standard setting. Section B, Reference Supplement to the Preliminary
Pilot version of the Manual for Relating Language examinations to the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment. Strasbourg:
Council of Europe. Available online
Khalifa, H. & ffrench, A. (2009). Aligning Cambridge ESOL examinations to the CEFR: Issues and
practice, Research Notes, 37: 10–14. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Khalifa, H. & Weir, C. (2009). Examining reading: Research and practice in assessing second
language reading. Studies in Language Testing. Volume 29. Cambridge: UCLES &
Cambridge University Press.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: from intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Little, D. (2007). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Perspectives on the
Making of Supranational Language Education Policy. The Modern Language Journal, 91 (4): 645–55.
Maris, G. (2009). Standard Setting from a Psychometric Point of View. In N. Figueras & J.
Noijons (Eds.), pp. 59–65.
Martyniuk, W. (2008). Relating language examinations to the Council of Europe’s Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages. In L. Taylor & C. J. Weir (Eds.), pp. 9–20.
Martyniuk, W. (Ed.) (forthcoming). Relating language examinations to the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages: Case studies and reflections on the use of the
Council of Europe’s Draft Manual. Studies in Language Testing. Volume 33. Cambridge:
UCLES & Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, M. & Saville, N. (2009). Profiling English in the real world: What learners and teachers can
tell us about what they know. Paper presented at American Association for Applied Linguistics
Conference. Denver, Colorado, March 21–24 2009.
McNamara, T. F. & Roever, C. (2006). Language Testing: The Social Dimension. Oxford: Blackwell.
Milanovic, M. (2009). Cambridge ESOL and the CEFR. Research Notes, 37: 2–5. Cambridge:
Cambridge ESOL.
Morrow, K. (Ed.) (2004). Insights from the Common European Framework. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
North, B. (Ed.) (1992). Transparency and Coherence in Language Learning in Europe: Objectives,
Assessment and Certification. Symposium held in Ruschlikon, Switzerland, 10–16 November 1991.
Strasbourg: Council for Cultural Cooperation.
North, B. (2000). The Development of a Common Framework Scale of Language Proficiency.
New York: Peter Lang.
North, B. (2002). A CEF-based self assessment tool for university entrance. In J. C. Alderson (Ed.),
pp. 146–66.
North, B. (2004). Relating assessments, examinations, and courses to the CEF. In K. Morrow (Ed.),
pp. 77–90.
North, B. (2006). The Common European Framework of Reference: Development, Theoretical
and Practical Issues. Paper presented at the symposium A New Direction in Foreign
Language Education: The Potential of the Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages. Osaka University of Foreign Studies, Japan, March 2006.
North, B. (2007a). The CEFR Illustrative Descriptor Scales. The Modern Language Journal, 91 (4):
656–59.
North, B. (2007b). The CEFR Levels: Key points and key problems. Paper presented at the 23rd
ALTE Conference, Sevres, 18 April 2007.
North, B. (2008). The CEFR levels and descriptor scales, in L. Taylor & C. Weir (Eds.), pp. 21–66.
North, B. & Hughes, G. (2003). CEF Performance Samples. English (Swiss Adult Learners).
Available online
North, B. & Jones, N. (2009). Further Material on Maintaining Standards Across Languages, Contexts
and Administrations by exploiting Teacher Judgment and IRT Scaling. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
North, B. & Schneider, G. (1998). Scaling descriptors for language proficiency scales. Language
Testing, 15: 217–62.
O’Sullivan, B. (2006). Issues in testing business English: The revision of the Cambridge
Business English Certificates. In Studies in Language Testing. Volume 17.
Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL & Cambridge University Press.
Papp, S. (2007). The Cambridge YLE tests in the light of cognitive, linguistic, educational,
social-psychological and cultural aspects of children’s L2 development and the CEFR.
Internal Cambridge ESOL report.
Papp, S. (2008). Quantitative linking YLE to the CEFR – summary of empirical studies to
date. Internal Cambridge ESOL report.
Papp, S. & Salamoura, A. (2009). An exploratory study linking young learners examinations
to the CEFR. Research Notes, 37: 15–22. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Parodi, T. (2008). L2 morpho-syntax and learner strategies. Paper presented at the Cambridge
Institute for Language Research Seminar. Cambridge, 8 December 2008.
Saville, N. (2003). The process of test development and revision within UCLES EFL. In C.
Weir & M. Milanovic (Eds.), pp. 57–120.
Saville, N. (2005). An interview with John Trim at 80. Language Assessment Quarterly, 2
(4): 263–88.
Shaw, S. and Weir, C. J. (2007). Examining Second Language Writing: Research and
Practice. In Studies in Language Testing. Volume 26. Cambridge: UCLES & Cambridge
University Press.
Shohamy, E. (2000). Assessment. In M. Celce-Murcia & E. Olshtain (Eds.). Discourse and
Context in Language Teaching (pp. 201–15). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
St John, M.-J. (2004). IELTS Cambridge ESOL examinations and the Common European
Framework. Research Notes, 18: 2–3. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Taylor, L. and Jones, N. (2006). Cambridge ESOL exams and the Common European
Framework of Reference (CEFR). Research Notes, 24: 2–5. Cambridge: Cambridge ESOL.
Taylor, L. and Weir, C. (Eds.) Multilingualism and Assessment. In Studies in Language
Testing. Volume 27. Cambridge: UCLES & Cambridge University Press.
Trim, J. L. M. (Ed.). (1978). Some possible lines of development of an overall structure
for a European unit/credit scheme for foreign language learning by adults. Strasbourg:
Council of Europe.
Trim, J. L. M. (Ed.) (1981). Modern Languages (1971–1981). Strasbourg: Council for
Cultural Cooperation.
Trim, J. L. M. (Ed.) (2001a). Common European Framework of Reference for languages:
learning, teaching and assessment – Guide for Users. Available online
Trim, J. L. M. (2001b). Breakthrough. Unpublished manuscript. University of Cambridge
ESOL Examinations (2006) BEC Vantage Information for Candidates. Cambridge: UCLES.
Trim, J. L. M. (2007a). First Certificate in English Handbook for teachers. Cambridge: UCLES.
Trim, J. L. M. (2007b). Preliminary English Test Handbook for teachers. Cambridge: UCLES.
Trim, J. L. M. (2008a). Certificate in Advanced English Handbook for teachers. Cambridge:
UCLES.
Trim, J. L. M. (2008b). Certificate of Proficiency in English Handbook for teachers. Cambridge:
UCLES.
Trim, J. L. M. (2008c). Key English Test Handbook for teachers, Cambridge: UCLES.
van Ek, J. (1981) Specification of communicative objectives. In J. L. M. Trim (Ed.).
van Ek, J. (1987). Objectives for foreign language learning: Vol. II Levels. Strasbourg:
Council of Europe.
van Ek, J. and Trim, J. L. M. (1990a/1998a). Threshold 1990. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
van Ek, J. and Trim, J. L. M. (1990b/1998b). Waystage 1990. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
van Ek, J. and Trim, J. L. M. (2001). Vantage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weir, C. J. (2005a). Limitations of the Council of Europe’s Framework of reference (CEFR)
in developing comparable examinations and tests. Language Testing, 22 (3): 281–300.
Weir, C. J. (2005b). Language Testing and Validation: An Evidence-Based Approach.
Oxford: Palgrave.
Weir, C. J. & Milanovic, M. (Eds.). (2003). Continuity and innovation: revising the Cambridge
Proficiency in English Examination 1913–2002. In Studies in Language Testing. Volume 15,
Cambridge: UCLES & Cambridge University Press.
Wilkins, D. A. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wilkins, D. A. (1978). Proposal for Levels Definition. In J. L. M. Trim (Ed.). 71–8.
Fluency in Speaking
Fluency in speaking is one of the criteria that feature in the descriptions of the higher levels of the Common European Framework of Reference. At B2 level, the learner should be able to produce language ‘with a fairly even tempo’ and ‘few noticeably long pauses’ (Council of Europe, 2001: 28). Also at the B2 level, the learner ideally can ‘interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party’ (ibid., p.24). The C2 user is characterised as being able to speak ‘so smoothly that the interlocutor is hardly aware of it.’ (ibid., p.28). However, fluency in speaking is not a well-defined or well-understood notion in applied linguistics, with many and varied approaches appearing in the literature. The English Profile project hopes to adopt an interactive approach to spoken fluency and bases its understanding on spoken corpus evidence from native- and expert-users of English as well as learners at all levels. The bibliography includes the main works that have influenced the research to date.
Bialystok, E. (1982). On the relationship between knowing and using linguistic forms. Applied
Linguistics, 3 (3):181–206.
Boers, F., Eyckmans, J., Kappel, J., Stengers, H., & Demecheleer, M. (2006). Formulaic
sequences and perceived oral proficiency: putting a lexical approach to the test. Language
Teaching Research, 10 (3): 245–61.
Carter, R. A. & McCarthy, M. J. (1995). Grammar and the spoken language. Applied Linguistics,
16 (2): 141–58.
Carter, R. A. & McCarthy, M. J. (1997). Exploring Spoken English. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Carter, R. A. & McCarthy, M. J. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Chambers, F. (1998). What do we mean by fluency? System, 25 (4): 535–44.
Conklin, K. & Schmitt, N. (2008). Formulaic sequences: are they processed more quickly than
nonformulaic language by native and nonnative speakers? Applied Linguistics, 29 (1):72–89.
Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The Psychology of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Evison, J. & McCarthy, M. J. (forthcoming). Social talk. In A. Barron & K. Schneider (Eds.),
Pragmatics of Discourse. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Evison, J., McCarthy, M. J. & O’Keeffe, A. (2007). ‘Looking out for love and all the rest of it’:
Vague category markers as shared social space. In J. Cutting (Ed.), Vague Language
Explored (pp. 138–57). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Fillmore, C. J. (1979). On Fluency. In C. J. Fillmore, D. Kempler & W. Wang (Eds.), Individual
Differences in Language Ability and Language Behavior (pp. 85-101). New York: Academic
Press.
Gatbonton, E. & Segalowitz, N. (1988). Creative automatization: principles for promoting fluency
within a communicative framework. TESOL Quarterly, I(3): 473–92.
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Applied Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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New York: Academic Press.
Hasselgreen, A. (2004). Testing the Spoken English of Young Norwegians: A Study of Test
Validity and the Role of ‘Smallwords’ in Contributing to Pupils’ Fluency. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hieke, A. E. (1985). A componential approach to oral fluency evaluation. The Modern Language
Journal, 69 (2): 135–42.
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second language learners. System, 32 (2): 145–64.
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(3): 387–417.
McCarthy, M. J. (1998). Spoken Language and Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
McCarthy, M. J. (2003). Talking back: ‘small’ interactional response tokens in everyday conversation.
Research on Language in Social Interaction, 36 (1): 33–63.
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(Universidad de Sevilla), 9: 11–29.
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Kytö (Eds.) Corpus Linguistics: An International handbook. Volume 2 (pp. 1008–24).
Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.
O’Keeffe, A., McCarthy, M. J. & Carter, R. A. (2007). From Corpus to Classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
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Riggenbach, H. (1991). Towards an understanding of fluency: A microanalysis of nonnative
speaker conversations. Discourse Processes, 14: 423–41.
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Canadian Modern Language Review, 65 (3): 395–412.
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F., de Ruiter, J. P., Yoon, K.-E., & Levinson, S. C. (2009). Universals and cultural variation in
turn-taking in conversation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106 (26):
10587–92.
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grammar. In P. Leistyna & C. F. Meyer (Eds.) Corpus Analysis: Language Structure and Language
Use (pp. 187–207). Amsterdam: Rodopi.
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which is not an easy thing. Language Sciences, 23: 651–77.
Tauroza, S & Allison, D. (1990). Speech rates in British English. Applied Linguistics, 11(1): 90–105.
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a foreign language. In R. Ellis (Ed.) Second Language Acquisition in Context (pp. 113–27).
Toronto: Prentice-Hall.
Towell, R., Hawkins, R., & Bazergui, N. (1996). The development of fluency in advanced learners
of French. Applied Linguistics, 17 (1): 84–119.
Walsh, S., O’Keeffe, A. & McCarthy, M. J. (2008). ‘... post-colonialism, multi-culturalism, structuralism,
feminism, post-modernism and so on and so forth’: a comparative analysis of vague category
markers in academic discourse. In A. Ädel & R. Reppen (Eds.) Corpora and Discourse (pp. 9–29).
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Watts, R. J. (1989). Taking the pitcher to the ‘well’: native speakers’ perception of their use of
discourse markers in conversation. Journal of Pragmatics 13: 203–37.
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Language Review, 57 (4): 573–89.
Wood, D. (2006). Uses and functions of formulaic sequences in second language speech: An
exploration of the foundations of fluency. Canadian Modern Language Review, 63 (1): 13–33.
Wolf, J. P. (2008). The effects of backchannels on fluency in L2 oral task production. System, 36
(2): 279–94.
