Grammar Spotlight
The English Grammar Profile (EGP) is a sister resource to the English Vocabulary Profile, and has been put together by Anne O'Keeffe (Limerick University) and Geraldine Mark, the co-authors, along with Ron Carter and Mike McCarthy, of English Grammar Today (Cambridge University Press). Mark and O'Keeffe investigated the extensive data in the Cambridge Learner Corpus to establish when learners begin to get to grips with different linguistic structures.
A series of insights from their research will be posted on this page, each one putting the spotlight on an interesting aspect of learner grammar development. Please note that all of the learner examples come from the Cambridge Learner Corpus, a 55-million word electronic collection of written learner data. The examination and the candidate’s first language are given in brackets after each learner example.
See the latest Grammar Spotlight entry below. Scroll right down to the bottom of this page to browse through previous entries.
Unlike lower level learners, the word choices used at the C1 and C2 levels commonly include correlative conjunctions. Furthermore, the contexts in which conjunctions are used are often more complex. For example, C1 learners use either … or to combine more complex strings of clauses and sentences.
And finally, about the present, you have two options; either you get something typical from your country, which they may like because you know how much they like collecting things from all over the world, or I get something from the wedding list store and send it to them with your name on it and we can sort it out when you arrive here. (Cambridge Advanced English; Catalan)
New to the vocabulary of learners at the C1 level is not only … but also, which is used to combine phrases and clauses, often for focus or emphasis.
This book is not only a guide to the history of music but also a compendium of theory. (Cambridge English: Proficiency; Catalan)
In addition to that, if we move to the new premises, we can not only solve the above problems, but also gain other benefits such as a better environment. (Business English Certificate Vantage; Chinese)
If we go back in time we will see that the difference between the old and the modern films is not only the number produced but also the content. (Cambridge English: Proficiency; Greek)
In addition, C1 learners can competently use the inverted auxiliary do + the subject after not only in order to give focus.
Indeed, not only did they teach us useful knowledge, but they also organised practical exercises to ensure that we had assimilated all the information. (Cambridge English: Proficiency; Greek)
Furthermore, not only do I speak (and write) fluent English, but I also speak French, Spanish and Portuguese. (Certificate in English Language Skills: Higher; Mende)
For me, not only do extreme sports provide satisfaction of achievement, but they also help you to express yourself. (Cambridge English Proficiency; Greek)
Also new to learner vocabulary at the C1 level, is (and) yet, which is used by learners to combine phrases and clauses to introduce a contrast, often unexpected.
In the face of these recent events, our department also reviewed the contract with ProLine International, and found some interesting yet unpleasant details. (Cambridge English: Business Higher; Romanian)
This college is famous for its art teachers and very skilled students, and yet it does not have its own gallery. (Skills for Life Level 2; Polish)
The host family was carefully selected, yet it was four miles away from school. (Cambridge English: Advanced; Polish)
By the C2 level, learners are able to further utilise and yet to combine sentences in order to introduce a contrast, often unexpected, and sometimes in a formal context.
If I had, I would try to do the best for them, just like my parents did, and very likely I would make the same mistakes. And yet, I think I would be a good and loving father. (Cambridge English: Proficiency; German)
I felt very embarrassed and I was sure I would get the sack. And yet the manager forgave me and I continued to work there. (Cambridge English: First; Polish)
I was unwilling to believe that anything could make me miss my flight. And yet , there I was standing in front of a burst tyre. (Cambridge English Proficiency; Greek)
C2 learners also use neither or nor + inverted auxiliary or be + subject to add to a previous related negative clause in order to focus on an additional negative factor.
At first, I didn’t pay attention to the large number of magazines and newspapers she subscribed to. Neither did I oppose her ‘need’ to get new clothes every month. (Cambridge English: Proficiency; Catalan)
Maybe he will eventually get over this terrible experience, but he’s bound to be a lonelier boy than he was. Nor does Jack’s future look any more promising. (Cambridge English: Proficiency; Italian)
There are also considerable disturbances during daytime. It is, for example, not possible to lead a conversation, e.g. on the veranda, without shouting. Nor is it possible to watch television peacefully without the thunderous noise in the background. (Cambridge English: Proficiency; German)
So, by the C2 level, learners are using coordinating and correlative conjunctions accurately and in complex contexts. Still, there remains room for improvement, which is seen in the frequency in which certain conjunctions are used. C1 and C2 learners use not only with great frequency. However, the use of neither or nor to start new sentences falls far below the frequency levels seen with native speakers. Similarly, while and yet is being used accurately, it is not being used to combine clauses with the same frequency seen with native speakers. So, what is left to do after the C2 level is achieved? Practise! Practise! Practise!
