Grammar Spotlight
The English Grammar Profile (EGP) is a sister resource to the English Vocabulary Profile, and has been put together by Anne O'Keeffe (Limerick University) and Geraldine Mark, the co-authors, along with Ron Carter and Mike McCarthy, of English Grammar Today (Cambridge University Press). Mark and O'Keeffe investigated the extensive data in the Cambridge Learner Corpus to establish when learners begin to get to grips with different linguistic structures.
A series of insights from their research will be posted on this page, each one putting the spotlight on an interesting aspect of learner grammar development. Please note that all of the learner examples come from the Cambridge Learner Corpus, a 55-million word electronic collection of written learner data. The examination and the candidate’s first language are given in brackets after each learner example.
See the latest Grammar Spotlight entry below. Scroll right down to the bottom of this page to browse through previous entries.
Building on the skills learned at the A2 level (wherein which is appears as the object in non-defining clauses), learners at the B1 level can use a non-defining relative clause with who as the object.
What I liked most was the friend I made there, a green-eyed chubby boy, who I played with till dinnertime, when I had to go home. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Portuguese)
She turned around and, she couldn’t believe it, it was an old classmate Tom, who she hadn’t seen for ages! (Cambridge English: Preliminary; German)
Learners can also use a defining relative clause with who as the object.
My friends are the people who I love most. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Spanish - Latin American)
They filmed two actors who I don’t really know arguing and kissing after it. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Catalan)
It was Sarah, a girl who I met in Spain on my holiday last year. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Swiss German)
B1 level learners are able to use both defining and non-defining relative clauses with the phrase whose name.
We have a new employee whose name is Mary Watts. (Cambridge English: Business Preliminary; Spanish - European)
It was a very famous football player, whose name was known all over the world. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Russian)
He has got a friend whose name is Robert. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; German)
Learners use defining relative clauses with the phrase the reason why to give an explanation and to add focus.
The reason why I love it is that it’s quite original because it’s about a woman who can see ghosts. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Spanish - European)
This is the reason why we are changing our working hours. (Cambridge English: Business Preliminary; German)
This is the main reason why it is so famous and popular as well. (Skills for Life: Entry 3; French)
B1 level learners can also add focus by use defining relative clauses with when to define nouns relating to time.
The day when he had to go back to Korea, I could not stop myself crying. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Korean)
I really remember the day when I lost my suitcase in the airport. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Spanish - Latin American)
I was in the class at the time when they made the movie, so you will be able to see me on TV. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Polish)
Learners use defining relative clauses with where to define nouns referring to place.
The city where I live is very nice and extremely charming. (CELSP)
But if they are going to a place where you go every year you should go with your friends, you will have more fun. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Spanish - European)
We went to the area where I used to live when I was a child near the Highlands. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Czech)
Finally, learners at the B1 level are able to use defining relative clauses with the pattern the + noun + who / that as a focusing device. However, this form is most frequently used by learners who speak romance languages.
The thing that was great is that the weather was really warm and it didn’t rain. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; French)
The thing that I love most is going to the shops. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Spanish - Latin American)
The person who called me was my best friend. (Cambridge English: Preliminary; Catalan)
So, at the B1 level, learners expand on the progress made at A2, using who as an object in defining and non-defining relative clauses. Once the B1 level is achieved, the pattern the + noun + who / that becomes a feature in learner work. Additionally, learners use where, when and a few key phrases (whose name and the reason why) within relative clauses. As learners move on to the B2 level, whose will be used more frequently and in a wider variety of contexts.
